Employment contract Essay

To raise a complaint at work the initial step is discussion to your line administrator, clarify the circumstance and check whether the issue can be comprehended casually. Assuming, be that as it may, the complaint can't be settled casually then the issue can be raised officially utilizing the accompanying method: Stage 1 Representatives may demand recorded as a hard copy a conventional gathering with the line supervisor to express the complaint. Where the issue includes the line director, this solicitation ought to be made to the manager’s chief (territory supervisor). Complaints ought to be made at the earliest opportunity and in any occasion inside 3 months of the issue grumbled about occurring. A meeting will be masterminded, ordinarily inside 10 working days, for the worker to talk about the issue with the administrator. A choice will be made once the issue has been completely researched and the director will impart their reaction recorded as a hard copy inside 5 working days. This ought to incorporate subtleties of the employee’s option to claim. Stage 2 On the off chance that the worker is disappointed with the choice, at that point they have gotten in stage 1 then they can take their complaint further and demand recorded as a hard copy a proper gathering under stage 2 of the complaint technique. This will be led by an administrator other than the chief that did the stage 1 gathering. The representative will get the choice of this conference recorded as a hard copy inside 5 working days. Stage 3 In the event that the representative is as yet disappointed with the choice, at that point they may offer recorded as a hard copy to the Chief Executive of the Trust inside 10 working long stretches of receipt of the stage 2 choice. A further gathering will occur and the choice will be affirmed recorded as a hard copy inside 5 working days of the meeting. The choice at stage 3 of the strategy is conclusive, to the extent that the Trusts inside methodology are concerned. Bv 1. Information Protection All private data ought to be kept secure by representatives so as to ensure clients and their families. Private data (for example client assistance plans, bolster notes and drug organization structures) must not be left in a spot where non-approved people may see it. Information ought not be given to anybody without the assent of the client or their closest relative. 2. Complaint Any complaints ought to be accounted for to the line director to attempt to determine the issue casually. Assuming, be that as it may, it isn't settled at this level then there is a complaint technique set up which empowers representatives to seek after the issue officially. 3. Peace making In the event that representatives have an issue with another individual from staff and it can't be settled between themselves then they should contact their line administrator for help with settling the issue. In the event that the contention includes the line supervisor or on the off chance that the representative feels that they are not accepting sufficient help, at that point they should answer to the territory chief. 4. Hostile to oppressive Practice All workers are relied upon to act with poise and regard towards each person’s singular convictions and personality. Clients, getting to Oaklea care and bolster administrations, ought not be dealt with less well dependent on their; age, sex, inability, race, religion or conviction, sexual direction, conjugal status or pregnancy/maternity or sex. 5. Wellbeing and Safety All representatives have moral obligation in guaranteeing their own and others wellbeing, security, and government assistance at work. We are required to peruse and apply hierarchical arrangements and methodology with respect to wellbeing and security, attempt essential preparing, wear individual defensive gear (PPE) gave, use wellbeing hardware and security gadgets where required and report any dangerous conditions to the line chief or Health and Safety Officer. 6. Privacy All data concerning clients and additionally their families must be treatedâ with the highest regard and all workers have a commitment to secure this data. Classified data must not be uncovered to an outsider either officially or casually (tattle). The sharing of data might be important for continuation of good consideration and backing of clients (for example between different workers or callings). On the off chance that workers are gotten some information about a client and are worried that doing so may break secrecy then explanation ought to be looked for by means of the line supervisor. 7. Whistle blowing On the off chance that representatives need to raise worry about a hazard, misbehavior or bad behavior that influences others, for example, clients, other staff individuals, the organization or the open then the company’s whistleblowing system ought to be followed. The primary phase of this system is raise worries with the employee’s line supervisor either recorded as a hard copy or through a gathering. On the off chance that the issue includes the line director or if the representative has just raised their ~@ ?U: worries with the line supervisor and feel that they have not been satisfactorily tended to then the second phase of the strategy ought to be followed. At this stage, issues might be brought either up recorded as a hard copy or through a gathering with a Director. In the event that stage 2 has been attempted and the workers concerns are uncertain or on the off chance that they feel that the issue is not kidding to the point that it ought to be examined by the Chief Executive quickly then concerns ought to be brought either up recorded as a hard copy or by means of a gathering. Any worker raising worries under the whistleblowing system has the option to stay mysterious. Bvi As a Community Home Carer, my job is to give individualized consideration and backing to individuals with social consideration needs so they may keep on living in their homes and in the network. A consideration plan is set up for every client that clarifies their particular needs and what care they require from us. My obligations/duties may include: Assisting clients with washing, washing, individual cleanliness, dressing, toileting, self control and catheter care. Dinner and drink arrangement and help with taking care of where important. Helping clients to agree to their recommended medicine and round out Medication Administration Records (MAR). Supporting customersâ with cleaning, clothing, shopping and other family unit obligations as required. Helping clients with portability abilities, moving them securely where required (for example from bed to seat) and helping them to utilize helps and individual hardware. Giving finish of life care. Reporting the consideration given at each visit in the Daily Support Notes (DSN). Liaising with different carers and social insurance experts to guarantee congruity of care. Via doing these obligations to an elevated expectation and adjusting to all arrangements, techniques and rules, clients will get a quality assistance that will assist them with maintaining however much autonomy as could reasonably be expected in a sheltered domain inside their own homes. The defending did via carers is basic in securing the wellbeing, prosperity and human privileges of defenseless grown-ups, and guarantees that they live liberated from mischief, misuse and disregard. It is our obligation to report any defending worries to the suitable person(s) with the goal that move might be made to ensure the prosperity of administration clients. Bvii a) Following best practice inside my work job assists with defending defenseless grown-ups living in the network and guarantees that they get a quality help that advances wellbeing and prosperity. It is significant that I remain inside my activity job, follow strategies and systems, stay up with the latest with changes in arrangements and enactment and stay up with the latest with preparing to build up my abilities in the work environment. It is likewise essential to function as a component of a group, passing on aptitudes where important (for example to new staff individuals) and picking up criticism from associates. Great relational abilities are fundamental between colleagues and different callings engaged with the consideration of the administration client as this empowers congruity of care. b) Failing to do the necessities of my job by not following strategies, techniques and enactment and not conforming to administrative bodies imperils the wellbeing and prosperity of administration clients and may put other colleagues in danger. Not following manual dealing with strategies, for instance, would put me and the administration client in danger of injury and not wearing individual defensive equipmentâ when fundamental may put me and others in danger of disease. Poor practice may likewise bring about protests from administration clients, disciplinary activity and in serious cases it might prompt me losing my employment, being arraigned as well as kept from working in the wellbeing and social consideration setting. Bviii As a Community Home Carer I should follow best practice inside my work job and work to the organization strategies and methodology that reflect laws and enactment. There are likewise outer components which impact the norms that I should hold fast to in my work, for example, the Care Quality Commission (CQC) fundamental principles, Skills for Care’s Common Induction Standards (CIS) which are the guidelines individuals working in wellbeing social consideration need to meet before they can securely work unaided (for example manual dealing with, emergency treatment, wellbeing and security preparing), the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) codes of training and ADASS’ ‘Safeguarding Adults: A National Framework of Standards for good practice and results in grown-up insurance work’, which sets out a structure of best practice gauges. Government activities additionally have an impact on the jobs of carers, for example, ‘Our Care, Our Health Our Sayâ⠂¬â„¢ which defines out approach objectives to make wellbeing and social consideration benefits that are planned around the patient instead of the necessities of the patient being compelled to fit around the administration previously gave. ‘Putting People First’ additionally focuses on a customized way to deal with the conveyance of grown-up social consideration. Bix a) Two distinctive delegate bodies which impact my region of work are the consideration quality commission and the wellbeing and care callings committee. b) The job of the consideration quality commission (CQC) is to direct, examine and survey all grown-up wellbeing and social consideration benefits in people in general, private

Argumentation-Persusasion ( Legalize Marijuana) Essay

Argumentation-Persusasion ( Legalize Marijuana) - Essay Example In addition, the other two most well known medications in US, tobacco and liquor, are legitimate and they fight that maryjane ought to likewise be made lawful (Morgan 2011). The contentions on the sanctioning of cannabis are very tremendous and differing and spread different angles enveloping clinical, monetary, lawful and social perspectives. In 1937, the Marijuana Tax Act was first marked by President Roosevelt as a government law and got compelling in October. As indicated by the government state laws, any individual possessing pot just because needs to pay a fine of sum $1,000 alongside detainment of one year. Ownership for some other time can cost the guilty party being sent to jail for as long as three years. The development or business in pot deal can prompt serious disciplines which incorporate life-time detainment and an exceptionally tremendous measure of fine (Morgan 2011). The supporters of pot legitimization set forward the US spending emergency to help their contentions. Maryjane enactment will spare 41.3 billion dollars spent on captures and prison detainment consistently. This monetary angle is critical as evaluations of 750,000 individuals are captured every year as a result of ownership or offer of weed. Different reserve funds will incorporate the installments to judges, court preliminaries, juries and o ther legitimate customs. With the present obligation of thirteen trillion dollars, US can profit by the sanctioning of Marijuana (Turnlund 2011). Another point featured is, the expense on the offer of maryjane deal, which can create billions of cash in the yearly income. With this cash, the legislature can spend this sum on improving other progressively critical zones (Morgan 2011). The adversaries of maryjane oppose the legitimization of cannabis by asserting that if pot is authorized, it would prompt development of new clients who had up till now opposed the enticement as a result of the law requirements. Another issue is that weed

2 Simple Steps To Download Online Videos For Free

2 Simple Steps To Download Online Videos For Free Make Money Online Queries? Struggling To Get Traffic To Your Blog? Sign Up On (HBB) Forum Now!2 Simple Steps To Download Online Videos For FreeUpdated On 20/04/2018Author : Pradeep KumarTopic : Featured Web AppsShort URL : http://hbb.me/1UDMoox CONNECT WITH HBB ON SOCIAL MEDIA Follow @HellBoundBlogWhen was the last time you downloaded a video online, and enjoyed it offline? Of course those online streaming sites give the best video quality. But when you download the video and view it offline, the quality decreases so does the enthusiastic feeling for watching that video. Now here is a chance for you to bring that HD Quality again.People mostly worry about two things when they download videos online/offline. They are Video Quality and Grabbing/downloading speed. Now Im going to review about Video Grabber, which offers both good video quality and grabbing speed.Video Grabber is one of the best free online video grabbing application which helps you grab videos from YouTube, vimeo, da ilymotion, break and other online video sites. It will automatically detect and find the real video file for you, you only need to save video to your PC. So thats the process: Copy Video URL, Paste URL, Download video, easy as 1, 2, and 3.Video Sites Supported:They support almost 1000+ sites including YouTube, Dailymotion, Vimeo, Google Video, USTREAM, CollegeHumor.com, and so on.Below I have mentioned few steps to download YouTube videos, both by online and offline method. You can use this tool to download from 1000+ video sites and you dont even have to register for downloading.ONLINE METHODOnline method is pretty simple, just visit Video Grabber and follow these 2 simple steps.READMoboLive â€" An Innovative Android Launcher with a Twist1. Paste the URL of your desired YouTube VideoGo to VideoGrabber.net and paste the URL of the YouTube video you want to download. Then click the button, Grab it. The video will be automatically detected and downloaded.2. Choose Video QualityAfter y ou click on the Grab it button youll get the preview thumbnail of the YouTube video you are going to download. Below that you can see the list of Quality options for downloading. Normally if you are going to download a HD video youll get many options like HD1080P, HD720P, 480P, 360P, and 240P.I would suggest you to go with HD1080P, since that provides the best YouTube HD Clarity.USING DESKTOP APPLICATIONIf you want to make this process offline you can download Video Download Capture software from Video Grabber. It is as simple as the online method.Video Download Capture from Video GrabberAfter downloading and installing the software, open it and enter the URL of the online streaming video. Select the Streaming Video site like YouTube, Vimeo, Dailymotion, etc. After that click the Add to Download button and the download process will be started instantly.Video Download Capture also has the features to record screen and convert video formats.So do visit Video Grabber and tell us how yo u feel about the site in the comments below.

Pepsico Organizational Profile Pepsico - 1849 Words

Running head: PEPSICO ORGANIZATIONAL PROFILE 1 PepsiCo Organization 9 PEPSICO ORGANIZATIONAL PROFILE Donald W. Coleman, Jr. University of Louisville Dr. Carpenter ELFH 490-98 May 26, 2015 PEPSICO: Organizational Profile Bolman and Deals four frames of organizations (1997) provide a foundation to determine how an organization functions and examine how operating within a certain frame may benefit or adversely affect an organization. In analyzing PepsiCo as an organization through Bolman and Deal?s (1997) frames of organizations the key elements of the structural and human resource frames as well as a review the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats that may affect Pepsi Co as an organization will be addressed.†¦show more content†¦Bolman and Deal?s (1997) frames offer a great tool to analyze an organization however, before adequately developing an understanding to effect positive change in any organization, it is vital that all members can clearly recognize the similarities and differences of those frames if they truly aspire to fashion a learning environment to spearhead change within in the organization. Each of the four frames, as with ideologies of leadership, ultimately exist simultaneously in any organization, at some level or another, however, there will always be just one that predominantly stands out above the rest; the key to successfully implementing these frames, no matter which may be more prevalent than another, is that leaders and members must develop the ability to learn about the frames and discover which would best fit the needs, and the need for change, within the organization. Then, and only then, can change occur in a manner that allows equal representation of all four frames, as outlined by Bolman and Deal (1997), to expand on the productivity of members as well as the organization?s mission, vision, and goals. Framing seems to be more of a process than a quick fix for any organization. Structural Frame The Performance with Purpose Campaign embodies its chief architect, Chairman, and CEO, Indra Nooyl?s vision and three-pillar design to establish and implement

Reflective diary of your daily experiences - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 1010 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2019/10/10 Did you like this example? Diary aim at giving a reflection of activities carried out in a chronological manner for the purpose of record keeping or storage for future references. This paper aims at giving my personal diary of the activities and the learning objectives I achieved at Tang Dynasty Restaurant while undertaking my attachment in addition to the assistant manager position I held at the same institution. Day 1 20th June 2016 Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Reflective diary of your daily experiences" essay for you Create order Today was my first day at Tang Dynasty Restaurant, as a newcomer in the organization, the manager Mr. Chan took me around the institution premises to familiarize me with the normal operations of the organization and the key departments that facilitate those activities. Ultimately he issued an office for me from which I will be executing my managerial duty as assistant manager. Day 2 – 24th June 2016 Today I help the manager who is my immediate supervisor handling the administrative paperwork on his office. The task enhanced my office management skills and throughout the activity, I learned that the restaurant had some weakness in record keeping. Some important files like the daily return for particulars days like weekends were missing. I assisted the manager by developing new criteria that will ensure that all files are kept updated. Day 3 – 25th June 2016 In this day, the manager assigned a task to conduct a quick meeting to address the entire staffs of the strategic measures to enhance better restaurant performance. The activity seemed challenging to me being a new figure in the institution. I utilize the transformational theory of management to create an accommodative environment for all employees before airing out my planned reforms including a thorough record keeping (Avolio Yammarino, 2013. Pg 56). Day 4 – 26th June 2016 I reviewed the restaurant menu and made necessary adjustment where possible. My aim for this work was to make the menu appealing to the customer, and for that reason, I recommended the graphical change of the food item on the menu with a modern aesthetic graphics, I also made necessary price changes to accommodate more customers. Day 5 – 27th June 2016 On this day, the manager gave me the reviewing the remunerations of employees since the month end was approaching. The wages for employees based on rank was incredible. In view with the required minimum wage, the standards were fairly above it. The manager told me to think of the employees’ proposal of allowance increment. Before further research, I suggested tokens based on the monthly returns. Day 6 – 1st July 2016 I was assigned the duty to set the target for this month. To ascertain this, I had to review the previous set goals which had a range turnover of $ 4.7 million on a monthly basis. I set the target higher to $ 5 million with a fairly developed strategy to arrive at it. The manager was pleased and promised a token when the token become successful. Day 7 – 2nd July 2016 On this day, the manager assigned the duty of planning for the forthcoming Singapore club party. I put everything in order and increased more reservation for the guest. I come to realize of the restaurant’s ability contrary to my expectation that it could not handle more than 5,000 guests. The party ended well, and the guests were pleased and promised to organize the same event in the following year. Day 8 – 3rd July 2016 I prepared the inventory for ordering the supply since the restaurant’s stock was running low. With them manger’s assistance, I was able to learn the procedure applicable for ordering the amount which offers a basis for efficient, uniform and efficient performance regardless of the quantity of the item required. Day 9 – 4th July 2016 Today I have entitled a task of liaising with the customers. To effect this, I had to prepare print out brochures which were to be issued to every customer attending the restaurant. Amazingly, the clients were happy about this and even commented that they have never seen it elsewhere. Majority promised to be part and parcel of the restaurant. Day 10 – 8th July 2016 This day will remain in my memory forever; there was a conflict between the restaurant cleaners and the compound cleaners, the difference arises from the disposal of waste where the compound cleaners claimed that their counterparts were adding more waste to their work area. I engaged them in a talk and assigned them different disposal areas thus fully utilizing my contingency skills theory to resolve the matter (Mikes Kaplan, 2014. Pg 8). Day 11 9th July 2016 The manager entitled me a duty to address the staff in the general meeting. I must recognize my weakness, addressing a crowd of over 500 employees was not an easy task to me, I felt some shyness, but the manager motivated me that I could make it. Day 12 – 10th July 2016 Today I helped the manager to develop the strategy for the forthcoming Indonesia embassy meeting. To start, we had to lias with the police and privately contacted company to ensure security. A special meal was planned for the occasion with several rooms reserved for the same. Day 13 – 11th July 2016 The main activity of this day was to oversee the success of the Indonesia embassy meeting. All the planned activities were maintained and executed properly; the day ended successfully. Day 14 – 15th July 2016 The manager assigned me the duty of reviewing the stock level, I must recommend the restaurant on this, and the previous records were explicitly elaborated and kept up to date. Day 15 – 16th July 2016 Supervision of staffs was the day activity, I started with the catering department, I recognize that all the employees keep all the regulation performance. The improvement was mainly required in cleaning agencies. Day 16 – 17th July 2016 In this day, I was tasked with the activity of keeping the financial records, the activity was tiring and had to get the support from the financial department, this aided me in developing my team work skills for a good job relations. Day 17 – 18th July 2016 The day’s activity was designing a management strategy that would reflect the restaurant state in the next five years. I developed an appropriate action plan and submitted to the manager for perusal.

The Middle Age Is Not Defined By Specific Chronological Age

Introduction Middle-age is not defined by specific chronological age, different people have different understandings about middle-age. According to Byrd and Breuss (1992), elderly New Zealanders (60 years old above) chose age 57 as the onset of middle-age while young people (mostly in their late 10s and early 20s) thought their middle-age was in their 30s. Such a difference existed as young people were yet fully embarked on the adult psychological developmental process, so they had no experience regarding to the changes during middle-age. In the following parts, changes of biological, social and psychological functioning during middle-age will be described and explained, followed by changes in occupational development. Also, KAWA model†¦show more content†¦Secondly, Peterson (1996) stated that menopause occurs in both sexes when they are about 50 years old. Menopause changes women’s physiological functioning due to a gradual low level of estrogen and lead to lower chance of produc ing ova (Peterson, 1996). During that period, many women experienced trouble because of â€Å"hot flushes†, or a feel of sudden blushing. For men, testosterone level slowly decreases after the age of 40 (Huyck, 1974). These changes of biological functioning happen especially in middle-aged persons and menopause are a natural alteration for human beings. Menopause does not define one’s onset of middle-age. Indeed, it is one of the main changes within human body during mid-life. Hence, changes in hormone levels are important while discussing middle-age regarding to physiology. Thirdly, Durkin (1995) stated that indelible marks on physical appearance were shown before getting 50. Greying of hair and wrinkle of skin are not only examples of signs of elderly people, but also marks the beginning of middle-age. Although make up and plastic surgery can be done to cover those signs, it does not mean that physical appearance had not experienced changes. Even though modification of diet and exercise can postpone the moment of having changes on appearance, majority of middle-age people have these problems (Peterson, 1996). Moreover, for sensory organ, one of the most noticeable for middle-age persons is the onset of presbyopia (Glasser Campbell, 1998),

Electronics Engineering for Literature Review - MyAssignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theElectronics Engineering for Literature Review. Answer: Research Methods for Engineers Literature Review: Connection to the Literature: In this module, I would try to answer some of the reasons why are the researches important for engineers? For so many years researchers are using the old school methods to conduct researches. The methods used do give results but is very time consuming. I admire them and want to become like them but the approach to them would be a little different. They always stick to that old school methods of conducting an experiment. For example, to conduct an experiment of calculating lifetime of a heavy radioactive compound they let disintegrate for weeks, sometimes months. To avail the results quickly and precisely one need to change the way one sees the world. We need to change the way we conduct experiments. Being from the field of electrical science, there are number of experiments which need time to be recorded. I always wonder cant we introduce a new improved way of conducting it so that it gives results quickly and precisely. The answer lies in research techn iques. There are number of ways that can help us to do all we want but for that we need to conduct researches and that too efficiently so that it wont hamper the process and results. The research team is the specially designed set of people that would help us to avail future tech in present. The researches need to be developed to improve quality. For example, signals were limited to transmit data for a small range. With the research conducted and improvement of technology, we are able to transmit them to a greater, wider range. The transformation of walky-talky to mobiles is the wonder of science only because of efficient research. I am also researching in new techniques from the field of science that can help electrical engineers to develop new technology that would be better than before. Research Question: Why researches are time consuming? Why are the researches important for engineers? What are the reasons that researches consume time? What are the areas that can help the quality of research to be improved? Any suggestion for the ways that can widen the view of electrical engineering. Significance: The research is the sector that always inspired me to explore. The reason behind to study electrical engineering is to explore the aspects one can discover while studying. Electrical engineering is the branch that lets you work for the benefit for the humankind as one cannot imagine a world without electricity. This research is very important to me as this will let not only me discover the wonders of science but also many young fellows who dream like me. The researches need investment, especially in this branch. Transformers, heavy generators and various machinery need huge investment but everything is worth it as if successful, humankind would achieve a lot for its future demands. Connection to the Current Body of Knowledge: We all know researches are time consumes. I wish to work upon discovering methods that would let us get results in an instance. Earlier all use to start an experiment and let it work for days. We will work to find out methods that would let us use a small sample for a small time and observations and results would be made upon that. The researches are important for engineers as this will let the humankinds betterment for what engineers work for. As described earlier, the researches consume time as the method is old school. If we work upon to find new methods with maximum yield we can save our time. The areas that can be covered to find new and better techniques are the application of various resources we have. The new technology can be made by the use of existing tools with the right application of them. Specifically if we talk about electrical engineering, there is still lot to discover in this field. The field where they need to work is to find a way of generating a sustainable reso urce of energy. Nowadays, scientists are researching on microwaves that can be used to generate power by the radiations sent by sun during the release of solar waves. There are more and more stuff in science that need better techniques to be researched. Expected Outcomes: The expected outcome is that we would be able to find new techniques that enables us to find new and developed technology at a faster, cheaper and efficient way. Also the human community would be benefited as they will be able to use more efficient ways than before. The example of microwave is best suited. If we are able to change that energy for our use, we would get a more efficient power source. Also we would be able to save our earth from further degradation. References: Richard J. Mayerand others (1995).Information Integration for Concurrent Engineering (IICE) Compendium of methods reportAir Force Material Command, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. p.7-10. Harmsen M. Saeki (1996). "Comparison of four method engineering languages". In:SjaakBrinkkemperet al. (eds.)Proceedings of the IFIP TC8, WG8.1/8.2 working conference on method engineering on Method engineering: principles of method construction and tool support: principles of method construction and tool support. January 1996, Atlanta, Georgia, United States. p.209-231 SjaakBrinkkemper, Method engineering: engineering of information systems development methods and tools. Journal of Information Software Technology, Vol 38, n4, pp 275-280 (1996) abColette Rolland(2008)Method Engineering: Towards Methods as Services. Keynote speech ICSE0. 2008. Colette Rolland(1998).A Comprehensive View of Process Engineering. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference CAiSE'98, B. Lecture Notes in Computer Science 1413, Pernici, C. Thanos (Eds), Springer. Pisa, Italy, June 1998. Kelly, K. Lyyttinen, M. Rossi. Meta Edit+: A fully configurable, multi-user and multi-tool CASE and CAME environment, Proc. CAiSE'96 Conf., Springer Verlag, 1996 Harmsen, S. Brinkkemper, Design and implementation of a method base management system for situational CASE environment. Proc. 2nd APSEC Conf., IEEE Computer Society Press, pp 430-438, 1995 Merbeth. Maestro II- das intergrierte CASE-system von Softlab, CASE systeme and Werkzeuge (Ed. H. Balzert) BI Wissenschaftsverlag, pp 319-336, 1991 Si Said. Guidance for requirements engineering processes. In: Proceedings of the 8th international conference and workshop on 'database and experts system application', DEXA'97, Toulouse, 15 September 1997 Rolland. A Primer for Method Engineering. Proceedings of the INFORSID Conference (INFormatique des ORganisations et Systemesd'Information et de Decision), Toulouse, France, June 1013, 1997. abAydin, M.N., Harmsen, F., Slooten, K. v., Stagwee, R. A. (2004). An Agile Information Systems Development Method in use.Turk J Elec Engin, 12(2),127-138 Abrahamsson, P., Warsta, J., Siponen, M.T., Ronkainen, J. (2003). New Directions on Agile Methods: A Comparative Analysis.Proceedings of ICSE'03, 244-254 J. Welke K. Kumar (1992). "Method Engineering: a proposal for situation-specific methodology construction". In: Cotterman, Senn (eds.)Systems Analysis and Design: A Research Agenda.Wiley, Chichester. pp. 257268. SjaakBrinkkemper, KalleLyytinen, Richard J. Welke (1996).Method engineering: principles of method construction and tool support: proceedings of the IFIP TC8, WG8.1/8.2 Working Conference on Method Engineering 2628 August 1996, Atlanta, USA. Springer.ISBN 041279750Xdoi:1007/978-0-387-35080-6 SjaakBrinkkemper, Saeki and Harmsen (1998). Assembly techniques for method engineering.Advanced Information Systems Engineering, Proceedings of CaiSE'98. New York: Springer.doi:1007/BFb0054236 AjanthaDahanayake (2001).Computer-aided method engineering: designing CASE repositories for the 21st century. Hershey, PA: Idea Group Inc (IGI), 2001.ISBN 1878289942 Brian Henderson-Sellers, JolitaRalyt, Pr J. gerfalk and Matti Rossi (2014).Situational method engineering. Berlin: Springer.ISBN 9783642414664doi:1007/978-3-642-41467-1 Brian Henderson-Sellers, JolitaRalyt andSjaakBrinkkemper, eds. (2008).Situational method engineering: fundamentals and experiences: proceedings of the IFIP WG 8.1 Working Conference, 1214 September 2007, Geneva, Switzerland. New York: Springer.ISBN 0387739467doi:1007/978-0-387-73947-2 Brian Henderson-Sellers, C. Gonzalez-Perez andDonald Firesmith(2004)Method engineering and COTS evaluationin:ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes archive. Vol 30, Issue 4 (July 2005). Manfred A. Jeusfeld,Matthias JarkeandJohn Mylopoulos, eds. (2009).Metamodeling for method engineering. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.ISBN 0262101084

A blog on disorders in sexuality

The blog discusses various types of sexual disorders. According to Grohol (1), sexuality is a normal psychological and sex-attraction tendency that exists in all the animals. However, it is more common among the human beings. Disorders in sexuality often manifest diverse facets of sexual influences on individuals’ normal life.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on A blog on disorders in sexuality specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Such disorders do not cause much psychological concern under ordinary circumstances until they grossly affect an individual’s psychological well being. They are normally undetectable until psychological influences are physically noted in the sense that individuals with these disorders often undergo normal living conditions, while executing their regular duties. Various studies released by the Harvard Health Institute indicate that sexual disorders are more prevalent in adult age t han they are experienced in youthful stage as stated in the blog. The author argues that there are various types of sexuality disorders that affect individuals in many aspects. However, information for the management of the disorder is scanty in the blog. From the course learning objectives, most individuals exhibit similar symptoms which can be generalized as discussed below on each of the most common sexuality disorders. The blog states that the female arousal disorder arises from inability to sustain sufficient lubrication until the end of a sexual activity (Grohol 2). The resulting effect is a swelling response from the sexual excitement that previously occurred. The blog explains that this is attributed to the distressful moments and may lead to complications in interpersonal relationships. The blog is missing a lot of therapeutic information in addition to the fact that there is no direct relationship between the condition and mental disorders or psychological effects of abuse of substances, such as drugs or alcohol. Remedial attention information is also missing in the blog, and this relates to my study as far as provision of supplementary information is concerned. According to Grohol (3), fetishism is a paraphilia. Usually, it involves obsessive sexual fantasies on non-living or distant objects for purposes of sexual arousal and satisfaction. The blog argues that victims of this condition usually perform masturbation with objects such as underpants, bras, stockings among others and may even encourage their sexual partners to put on such objects to enhance their sexual activities.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More There is not enough information on general symptoms as portrayed in the blog. Course information would be helpful in supplementing detailed data in remedial approach in order to help victims of this type of disorder. Premature ejaculation (PE) is characterized by regular ejaculations with very little or minimal sexual stimulation before, during and shortly after penetration. This leads to one party satisfaction, while the partner is left dissatisfied (Grohol 3). The author argues that continual PE may lead to loss of self-esteem and breaking off the relationships. Physiological attention has not been proposed in the blog, and thus, it lacks critical information. It is necessary to give detailed facts from course learning in regard to societal challenging issues in order to give appropriate solutions. Gender identity disorder (GID) has been diagnosed as a crisis in individual gender although it is controversial to gayism and lesbianism. Individuals with this condition normally express wishes to transform into the opposite gender. They become obsessed with the opposite sex and, thus, behave respectively (Grohol 5). However, the blog does not explain how and when problem diagnosis should commence. Course information sheds ligh t on early diagnosis of socially challenging issues and soon provision of elucidation. Works Cited Grohol, John. Sexuality and Sexual Disorders. 15 May 2008. Web. https://psychcentral.com/sex/. This essay on A blog on disorders in sexuality was written and submitted by user Angelica Pennington to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

DETERMINISM AND FREE WILL essays

DETERMINISM AND FREE WILL essays The conflict between determinism and free will is a long-standing one. It is one of those philosophical issues that might never be fortunate enough to receive a unanimously agreed upon solution and for this reason, it is up to each person how he views the issues and seeks to resolve it. As with most philosophical theories, determinism and free will is a contentious issue because they oppose each other and in order to support one, you need to give up the other. It is generally believed that the two cannot exist together for they are in conflict with each other and thus are incompatible. It is therefore important to first understand what is meant by determinism and free will. Clear definitions of the terms can help us decided whether the two are compatible or not or if free will has any place Determinism is the philosophical position, which maintains that behind every event is a cause or another event. Waddell Ekstrom (2000) writes: "The doctrine of scientific or casual determinism maintains that every event is causally necessitated by a previous event, so that every event stands in a chain of events stretching backward into history, the links of which are deterministic causal connections. An alternate way to put the doctrine is this: At any particular moment, there is, given the actual past and the laws of nature, exactly one way the world could go." (Page 16) Determinism therefore ignores the role of choices or moral responsibility and primarily focuses on the role of previous events or cause in the creation of a new event. For example, when a person misbehaves with an elderly determinism would free him of his moral responsibility to have behaved more properly and instead study the causes of his behavior. Determinists believe that behind every current event is a past cause or event and keeping this view in mind, we would probably acquit the misbehaving person and instead accuse those...

Emerging Network Technologies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Emerging Network Technologies - Essay Example The answer was to use VPN over dial-up links, a cost-effective solution. The company did a pilot implementation with a VPN product from Cisco. Implementation: BPCL evaluated various options before selecting Cisco's VPN solution. They had to basically decide between two options, a software-based and an appliance-based VPN solution. Software based VPNs are offered by Computer Associates and CheckPoint and appliance-based solutions are offered by Nortel and Cisco. BPCL implemented Cisco's VPN 3030 Concentrator. It's a VPN platform for medium and large enterprises with bandwidth requirements from T1/E1 through fractional T3. The concentrator supports up to 1500 simultaneous sessions. It offers hardware acceleration and is field-upgradeable to the 3060. Benefits: BPCL has achieved faster deployment, lower cost of operations, and a scalable solution that supports up to 1500 concurrent VPN users and can be integrated with future security initiatives like digital signatures and secure ID cards. BPCL would have had to spend a substantial higher amount on VSAT links or leased lines at remote locations if it had not deployed a VPN solution. University of Minnesotta, is one of the premier universities of America offering a wide range of courses. The University of Minnesota is one of the most comprehensive public universities in the United States and ranks among the most prestigious. Product: University of Minnesota, which serves 60

Investment Analysis Coursework 2001 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Investment Analysis Coursework 2001 - Essay Example ‘Herd’ implies a social grouping of people, who have similar understanding or perception about anything. Here ‘herd’ implies the people, who have the same viewpoint within the stock market. The above statement briefs that market movements are dependent on individuals. If a person buys a particular stock and he is a popular figure in the community and society, then every individual intends to purchase this stock and this is simply because the first person has bought it, not because of the market value of the stock. â€Å"Perhaps 100 people were simply imitating the coin flipping call of some terribly persuasive personality† (Buffett n.d. p. 4). The ‘margin of safety’ principle implies that safety should be ensured while buying stocks. Walter has justified that while dealing in the stock market, it should always be remembered that it is other people’s money which is being handled. Therefore it reinforces the ethics to strongly avert losses while dealing in stocks. It should always be remembered that money is real and therefore should be handled appropriately. If the net worth of a business is $1 and it can be obtained at 40 cents, then it aims to generate profit. In the stock markets risks and rewards are correlated because as the stock grows riskier, more are the returns from this stock. Even though a high risk stock would be able to generate more returns, yet a risky stock can also generate less or nil returns because the stock’s performance is dependent upon its market performance, which is guarded by several principles. Rational pricing is very important in the stock market, as this pricing is needed for fixed income securities and bonds. Rational pricing implies such a type of pricing, which represents that the market price of the assets in the stock market is free of any arbitrage pricing. Eugene Fama has been propounded as the father of the theory of ‘efficient market hypothesis’. Fam a stated two theories related to the efficient market hypothesis. The first theory was classifying the markets on the basis of three types of efficiency. Fama classified three forms of efficiency which are as follows: Strong form efficiency Semi strong form efficiency Weak form efficiency The strong form efficiency implies that all information related to the firm is incorporated in the price of the stock of the firm. The strong form tests are concerned with whether investors or investor groups have monopolistic access in determining the price of a stock. The semi strong form tests imply the prices are adjusted according to the information available about the firm in their announcements to the public, such as announcements of annual earnings, the stock splits etc. that the firm has witnessed. The weak form efficiency is such a test, where only the historical prices of stocks have been displayed to the public and no other details about the firm is divulged. Fama describes the market e fficiency hypothesis to be very simple, which simply points out that the market price of a stock represents all the vital information about the firm. The second concept, which Fama stated with respect to the efficient market hypothesis, was the concept of market efficiency, which can be rejected only with a rejection of the

Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal Essay Example for Free

Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal Essay Franklin Delano Roosevelt is indisputably the greatest President of the United States of America in the 20th century. Ascending to the highest office despite his crippling poliomyelitis condition, he epitomized transformation never before seen in American soil (Cashman 1989). Identifying himself with the multitudes forgotten at the base of the base of the economic pyramid, he inspired and led the New Deal; a complex and comprehensive legislation program designed to raise all Americans from the Great Depression and serve as a remedy to the inequalities inherent in the American social structure. Under the same deal, the United States military and domestic strategies were directed to the World War II, the victories thereof brought the United States to the pinnacle of global economic and unchallenged military superiority. The United States, his country over which he presided, in unmatched adoration elected him four times: a feat unmatched in the history of the American presidency. For the twelve years in White House, he was the personification of the response of all Americans to the Great Depression. As the World War II drew on he never failed the American populace. For the twelve years, unparalleled crisis tormented the United States and not a single citizen was spared. Never, in the history of the Presidency had a president identified with each and every citizen, bearing even greater responsibility as he pushed his metal capacities to the limit to save Americans from the bites of the Great Depression. Sitting on a wheel chair in the Oval office he witnessed and participated in greater changes not only in his country but the world over. His administration remains a major watershed in the history of the United States. In 1933 when he took the oath of office, America was no more than a land of small town values with small government and completely isolated from global affairs. This was the America he was handed at the inauguration; an America still presided over by the Protestant and the Anglo-Saxon elites, an America of economic laissez-faire, of Prohibition, and a country of the Model T Ford (Heale 1999). Twelve years later, a different America had emerged. An America characterized by pervasive government bureaucracy, metropolitan values, assertive ethnic minorities, a nuclear power and an America whose political power was centred in Washington. More than any other president before him he directed the fundamental transformation of America’s political society. His influence was so powerful that subsequent occupants of the White House had to operate in his shadow. When FDR assumed office, the economic situation was so devastating that the country was almost on its knees. The gross national product plummeted from $103.1 billion to $ 58 billion (in current dollars) between 1929 and 1932. In the same period the level of industrial production had almost halved. The unemployment rate was at 25%, thousands of farmers and businesses went bankrupt, and millions and millions of investors lost life savings. The New Deal brought into life by FDR could not have been more welcome. The Deal broke novel federal regulatory ground. For the fast time in the political and economic history of the United States, the federal government assumed the responsibility of stimulating investments. The federal government strove to correct the abuses in the national economic machinery. By amassing far more reaching goals, the government became responsible for the relief of distress among workers, homeowners, businesses, farmers, consumers and investors (Steiner 2005). Urgent action had to be taken. The election of Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1932 marked the terminus of the roaring twenties corporate regime paving the way for the New Deal regime, a regime that would reshape the balance of power in Washington and the way of life of American for almost half of the 20th century. The hope that he brought to the nation was so palpable. With the New Deal FDR â€Å"made his greatest single contribution to the politics of the 1930s: the instillation of hope and courage in the people† (Derber 2004, 60). Just a day after the inauguration, the president summoned an extraordinary session of Congress and with the first sitting fresh energies was directed towards the challenge of the time: the Great Depression. The term â€Å"Hundred Days† became descriptive of the special sessions of the 73rd Congress that launched the New Deal to fight the Great Depression. Between March 9 1933 and June 16, 1933, more major legislations were passed by Congress than at any other time in the history of the United States. The major legislations passed during these one hundred days include; the Emergency Banking Act, the Civilian Conservation Act, the Economy Act, the Reforestation Relief Act, the Economy Act, the Federal Emergency Relief Act, the Securities Act, the Tennessee Valley Authority, the Agricultural Adjustment Act, the Home Owners’ Refinancing Act, the National Employment System Act, the Banking Act, the Emergency Railroad Transportation Act, the Farm Act and the National Industrial Recovery Act. The one hundred days as the most dramatic duration in the United States’ public policy history (Olson 2001). In the early months of 1933, the Great Depression continued biting along its relentless path. Unemployment mounted, industrial production foundered, mortgage foreclosures became commonplace and the banking sector failed and not even the state authorities could afford to meet their relief obligations (Cashman 1989). Coupled to this inaction, the country had to wait for four months before any positive executive action could come into play. From the presidential date of November 8 to the inauguration date on March 4, this quadrennial problem in American politics persisted and its ramifications with regard to the Great Depression were not friendly either. To remedy the situation, the Twentieth Amendment did away with the Congress meeting on January 3 and brought forward the presidential inauguration to January 20 from March 4. However, the ratification of this Amendment did not take place until February 1933. To try and heal the stultifying loss of confidence occasioned by the four months of unnecessary wait, Herbert Hoover attempted a smooth transition by pursuing dialogue with FDR, trying to extract assurances that FDR would comply with his positions on taxes and tariffs, the budget and the currency even if such a move was only focussed on maintaining public confidence but FDR would not promise commitment (Cashman 1989). In February 1933, a series of bank failures led to the complete collapse Herbert Hoover’s intended dialogue. Historically, the weakness of the American banking system had led to so many bank failures, but in 1932-1933, the condition was reminiscent of an acute crisis. In October 1932, the crisis deepened further. In anticipation of the collapse of a crucial banking chain in Nevada, the governor ordered a bank holiday. On the midnight of February 14 1932, William A. Comstock, the Governor of Michigan issued a proclamation leading to the closure of five hundred and fifty banks for eight days. The Michigan bank holiday precipitated the panic that spread to other states and subsequent declarations of bank holidays (Cashman 1989). As banks closed for holidays, the gold reserves flowed from the Federal Reserve System and the New Yolk banks to keep banks across the country afloat and to satisfy the demands of the panic stricken foreign investors. In slightly more than two months, Americas gold reserves had fallen from more that $ 1.3 billion to just $ 400 million. By 1933, 18,569 banks had a total deposit of about $ 6 billion in cash against the demand of $ 41 billion by depositors. Two days before the inauguration of FDR, $ 500 was withdrawn from banks across the country making the situation worse (Cashman 1989). It is therefore no surprising that all Americans were united in the demand of a decisive executive action even if such an imperative could only be met by a modified dictatorship.

Americas War on Drugs Essay -- Illicit Drugs

Throughout history, Americans have fought many enemies that threaten the safety of our great Nation and provided aid and resources to our partnering countries in their time of despair. However, the consequences were substantial, countless brave men and women lost their lives defending the freedom of Americans. Today American’s fight a different kind of war; it is a war without a clear enemy or end in sight. Today, America fights a War on Drugs. In the early 1970s, the War on Drugs was still relatively new and drug smuggling continued, going virtually unimpeded through the U.S. northern border (Stout 34). For over 40 years, the War on Drugs (implemented by former President Richard Nixon) had cost the United States an estimated one trillion dollars, for what is believed to be nothing more than an â€Å"objective to stomp out growing social discontent in the country† (Stout 38). However, by this time, the drug demand had increased significantly throughout the United States and many drug smugglers were beginning to create smaller organizations throughout Mexico, breaking all ties with the larger organizations. Furthermore, cash flow from drug sales wasn’t enough and other methods for obtaining quick money were used to subsidize their income, such as; kidding napping for large ransoms, prostitution and auto theft. With criminal activity escalading, President Nixon then created the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) in 1973 to declare an, â€Å"all-out global war on the drug menace† (Martin 226). Although, drug production and smuggling was an essential way of life for many Hispanics throughout Mexico, the United States continued to provide financial and military aid throughout decades of uncertainty. Additionally, these actions resulted ... ...s." Latin Trade (English) 17.2 (2009): 22. MasterFILE Premier. Web. 18 Apr. 2012. Campos, Isaac. "In Search Of Real Reform: Lessons From Mexico's Long History Of Drug Prohibition." NACLA Report On The Americas 44.3 (2011): 14-18. Academic Search Premier. Web. 18 Apr. 2012. Kellner, Tomas, and Francesco Pipitone. "Inside Mexico's Drug War." World Policy Journal 27.1 (2010): 29-37. Academic Search Premier. Web. 18 Apr. 2012. Martin, William. "Texas High Ways." Texas Monthly 37.10 (2009): 148. MAS Ultra - School Edition. Web. 18 Apr. 2012. Martin, William. "Texas High Ways." Texas Monthly 37.10 (2009): 148. MAS Ultra School Edition. Web. 18 Apr. 2012. Stout, Robert Joe. "Do The United States And Mexico Really Want The Drug War To Succeed?." Monthly Review: An Independent Socialist Magazine 63.8 (2012): 34. Points of View Reference Center. Web. 18 Apr. 2012.

Trends in Modern International Terrorism

Trends in Modern International Terrorism Boaz Ganor Abstract This chapter examines some of the most widely researched trends and developments within the phenomenon of modern international terrorism, providing policy recommendations on how to counter its emerging threats – particularly that of the Global Jihad movement and â€Å"homegrown† terrorism. The magnitude of the modern terrorist threat was demonstrated by the attacks of September 11, and ever since, the field has experienced a renewal of sorts, attracting unprecedented attention by both scholars and the mainstream public.This chapter will introduce readers to the main schools of thoughts within the academic field that explain terrorism. It will also present the many disciplines applicable to the study of terrorism, demonstrating that the phenomenon is multifaceted in nature, requiring a cohesive international and broad-based response. In covering a number of dilemmas facing terrorism experts, the chapter explore s the debate over a definition of terrorism, providing a proposed definition that distinguishes acts of terrorism from criminal acts.The chapter continues on to explore the phenomenon of modern terrorism, the role of traditional crime within the terror sphere, and the growing threat of Global Jihadi terrorism – including terror networks and homegrown cells and activists who have emerged as a result of the spread of radical Islamic ideology. The role of terrorism in democratic states and the economic ramifications of terrorism are also explored. Finally, the chapter ends with recommendations on how governments should effectively respond to terrorism and discuses room for further research.Trends in Modern International Terrorism In recent years, the academic world has witnessed a surge of research and academic programs in the field of homeland security and counterterrorism. After the attacks of 9/11, the threat of global terrorism immediately topped the international agenda. B. Ganor Lauder School of Government, International Institute for Counter-Terrorism (ICT), Interdisciplinary Center (IDC), Herzliya, Israel e-mail: [email  protected] ac. il D. Weisburd et al. (eds. ), To Protect and To Serve: Policing in an Age of Terrorism, DOI 10. 007/978-0-387-73685-3_2,  © Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2009 11 12 B. Ganor Growing recognition of the threat, combined with an increase in government spending, spurred the development of academic research institutions, think tanks, and new higher education programs in the study of homeland security and counterterrorism. The trend was particularly prominent in the United States, as researchers sought a basic understanding of the characteristics of terrorism and agencies sought ways to effectively cope with the phenomenon.This trend was accompanied by a significant increase in the number of researchers focusing on the phenomenon of terrorism. These researchers came from a wide array of academic disciplines, applying varied quantitative and qualitative research tools and methods in their analysis of the threat. In understanding the phenomenon and preventing future terrorist attacks, researchers have focused primarily on understanding the rationale of terrorist organizations in general and Global Jihad organizations in particular – their cost-benefit calculations and their decision-making processes. Trends† in terrorism have also been explored – often focusing on the introduction, transition, or prominence of a specific modus operandi or a method, such as suicide bombings, the Global Jihad movement, or the use of unconventional weapons. Reviewing these trends and themes in terrorism – and the academic research that has accompanied them – is crucial in determining how far we have come and how far we have to go, both in terms of the governments designing and deciding on counterterrorism policy and the academics informing such decisions.In exploring the phe nomenon of modern international terrorism, this chapter will first introduce readers to the various schools of thought and academic approaches used in explaining terrorism – drawing on a wide range of disciplines and theories. Discussion will then move to one of the most basic components of the terrorism dilemma, with implications on how the term – and thus phenomenon of terrorism itself – is treated, applied, and understood by the international community – the debate over defining terrorism.As will be demonstrated, definitions of terrorism vary widely – with equally as wide implications – yet there is still a general consensus among most leading scholars as to the essential nature of the threat. â€Å"Modern terrorism,† the next theme that will be explored in this chapter, is regarded as a form of psychological warfare intended to spread fear and anxiety among the target population. This fear is translated into political pressure on decision makers to change policies in such a manner that will serve the terrorist’s interests.As such, modern terrorists attempt to exploit the liberal values of democratic states, forcing governments to adhere to their demands as a result of the physical, psychological, and economic ramifications of terrorist attacks. The nature of terrorism in relation to the democratic state will be explored in a later section of this chapter as well. As terrorist groups are usually engaged in a long war of attrition, terrorist organizations need ongoing support and funds to ensure they can maintain their activities.In fact, one of the main sources of funding for many terrorist organizations is criminal activity: smuggling, counterfeiting, extortion, and narcotics. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the threat of international terrorism grew with the spread of Global Jihad terrorism. Made up of complex networks of hierarchal terrorist organizations, proxy and affiliate organizat ions, local and international terror 2 Trends in Modern International Terrorism 13 etworks, sleeper cells, and indoctrinated radical activists, all these actors share a common extreme ideology and the readiness to use violence in general – and terrorism in particular – in order to achieve their goals. The economic ramifications of these activities only further exacerbate the damage posed by terrorist attacks, another focus of terrorism research. This dynamic terrorist phenomenon has threatened an increasing number of states while involving more terror organizations, networks, activists, and supporters worldwide.The growing level of the threat, its international scope, its lethality,1 and the possible use of nonconventional terrorism (CBRN – chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons) necessitate future multidisciplinary research in the field and a more cohesive, international response. Explaining Terrorism In general, two schools of thought explaini ng the phenomenon of modern terrorism have emerged out of the collection of academic work within the discipline – the â€Å"psychological-sociological† school of thought and the â€Å"political-rational† school of thought.Both schools maintain that terrorism seeks to achieve political goals by instilling fear and anxiety among the target population, but each stresses a different aspect of the explanation. The psychological-sociological school, represented most recently by scholars such as Dr. Jerrold Post (1998) and John Horgan (2005), stresses the phenomenon’s psychological component, maintaining that the immediate and central goal of terrorism is to instill fear and anxiety, while its political goals are long term. Terror as a clinical term refers to a psychological state of constant dread or fearfulness, associated with an abnormally high level of psych-physiological arousal. This is central to what terrorists aim to achieve, since after all, while the y have some ultimate set of political objectives, it is an immediate goal of most terrorist groups to cause terror† (Horgan, 2005:14). The psychological-sociological school addresses both the desired effect of terrorism and its root causes, relying primarily on social group dynamics and the psychological profile of an individual terrorist actor.Some early psychological explanations of terrorism have focused on the disruptive or psychopathological personalities of terrorist operatives, analyzing terrorists based on characteristics or disorders associated with violent or aggressive behaviors (De la Corte et al. , 2007). Some of the common psychological characteristics that have been attributed to alleged terrorists Analysis of terrorist incidents over the last 35 years confirms that terrorist attacks, while arguably decreasing in quantity, are growing more deadly over time, as the number of fatalities per attack has increased (LaFree and Dugan, in this volume).Such data, however , rely on a definition of terrorism that LaFree and Dugan themselves note is relatively â€Å"inclusive. † The Global Terrorism Database (GTD), on which their analysis is based, excludes â€Å"attacks on the military by guerilla organizations,† but includes military targets attacked by substate actors motivated by political, economic, or social motives (See LaFree and Dugan; in this volume). 1 14 B. Ganor re paranoia, antisocial and narcissistic personalities (Millon, 1981; Post, 1987), lack of empathy with victims, hostility toward parents, dogmatic or ideological mentality, or a simplistic or utopian worldview (Victoroff, 2005). At one end of the spectrum within such literature is the assertion – and at times assumption – that terrorists are to some degree psychologically â€Å"abnormal,† possessing personality disorders that qualify them as insane or psychopathic (as discussed by Cooper, 1978; Hacker, 1976; Lasch, 1979; Pearce, 1977; Taylor, 198 8).Despite early research providing psychological profiles of terrorists, other terrorism researchers have come to the general conclusion that there is no universal terrorist personality pattern; most terrorist operatives are not necessarily â€Å"psychopaths† (Silke, 1998), nor do they show traces of being clearly or consistently mentally ill (Crenshaw, 2000; Post, 1998; Stahelski, 2004). Early studies on the topic have been largely disproved or debunked, in fact, even within the psychological-social school of thought.Further research has shown that terrorists rarely meet the criteria for insanity,2 but rather may possess some â€Å"particular personality dispositions† related to psychological conditions or disorders (Post, 1987). Dr. Jerrold Post, an expert in political psychology, maintains that even though terrorists fit within the spectrum of â€Å"normality,† a large number have demonstrated specific personality characteristics that indicate a minor psycho pathology, such as aggression, activism, thrill seeking, an externalist psychological mechanism and factionalism.These are characteristics of narcissistic disorders and borderline personalities (Post, 1998:25–27). While Post stops short of actually diagnosing terrorists with such disorders or characteristics, he does claim they tend to have high frequency among terrorists, contributing to a uniform rhetorical style and logic (Silke, 1998:65). According to Post, there is a unique logic that characterizes a terrorist’s thought process – a â€Å"terrorist psycho-logic. Post claims that terrorists are motivated by psychological influences when they choose to conduct violent acts, as expressed in rhetoric that relies on â€Å"us versus them† and â€Å"good versus evil† dichotomies. He further claims that lodged in a terrorist’s permanent logic is the notion that the regime must be toppled, which is a result of the terrorist’s search for i dentity. In an attack against the regime, a terrorist is actually trying to destroy the inner enemy within him.However, even as some researchers cite it as the primary cause, a terrorist’s individual psychological profile is not the only significant explanation for the phenomenon of terrorism. Rather, group psychology and sociology may be significant explanatory factors behind terrorist attacks. Various researchers have cited group pressure as a variable to explain recruitment, methods of operation and involvement in terrorism (Merari, 2004). Others have applied the cult model to terrorist organizations (Morgan, 2001). Studies by Heskin (1984), Rasch (1979), and Taylor (1988) have all cited evidence discrediting the assumption that terrorists are psychologically â€Å"abnormal. † 2 Trends in Modern International Terrorism 15 It is in this context that Post emphasizes the group as a framework in which a sense of belonging and importance for its members is created. He cl aims that ideology plays an important role in supporting a unifying environment for the group.Shared ideology justifies the group’s activity and quickly transforms into the group’s moral guide. The psychological-sociological school relies, therefore, on psychological and sociological characteristics, motives, and grievances in explaining the phenomenon of terrorism. In contrast, the â€Å"political-rational† school of thought views terrorism as a rational method of operation intended to promote various interests and attain concrete political goals (Crenshaw, 2000; Hoffman, 1998; Shprinzak, 1998).Rational choice theory has been adopted by a number of terrorism researchers within this school, and maintains that terrorist action derives from a conscious, rational, calculated decision to choose one route of action over another (Crenshaw, 1992; Sandler et al. , 1983; Sandler and Lapan, 1988; Wilson, 2000). 3 Leading researcher Martha Crenshaw explains that an organiz ation chooses terrorism among several operational alternatives in order to promote their mutual values and preferences.In making a rational calculation of the costs and benefits, terrorism is deliberately chosen as the preferred method of political activity because it is perceived to be the most effective of the operating alternatives – the benefits exceed the costs. In this context, Ehud Shprinzak similarly stressed that the phenomenon of terrorism is not the result of disturbed human activity or a random thoughtless attack. This is a process that almost always begins without violence or terrorist activity (Shprinzak, 1998:78).Rand terrorism expert Bruce Hoffman further clarified the â€Å"rationalist† approach: â€Å"I have been studying terrorists and terrorism for more than twenty years. Yet I am still always struck by how disturbingly ‘normal’ most terrorists seem when one actually sits down and talks to them†¦ Many are in fact highly articulate and extremely thoughtful individuals for whom terrorism is (or was) an entirely rational choice†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Hoffman, 1998:7)The dispute between the rationalist and psychological approach is important in understanding the root causes of terrorism, allowing experts and security professionals to identify characteristics of the threat and formulate effective counterstrategies. While the two schools may seem to fundamentally clash, an interdisciplinary explanation of terrorism may actually be the most effective way to approach the phenomenon. In a sense, these two schools can complement and complete each other.In the Israeli setting, for example, the case of a suicide bombing is likely motivated by a combination of the rational calculations of the organization, a cost-benefit analysis made by the attackers themselves, social pressure from the attackers’ peer group, and personal psychological, social, cultural, and religious motivations. The decisionmaking process functions on a number of levels, in which both political-rational 3 For an overview of psychological, social, and rational choice theories, see Victoroff, 2005. 16 B. Ganor Psychology H ci ol og ist or y So Law Why Terrorism ? Economics Media & Communication Political Science Fig. 2. 1 Explanatory disciplines to terrorism and the psychological-sociological explanations have their place, demonstrating the multidisciplinary nature of terrorism. As Crenshaw noted, even though an act of terrorism may not be wholly the result of a psychological disorder, that is not to say â€Å"the political decision to join a terrorist organization is not influenced or, in some cases, even determined by subconscious or latent psychological motives† (Crenshaw, 1998:386).It seems that only multivariable explanations based on methodologies and theories from different disciplines can adequately address the complex phenomenon of terrorism, provide explanations for the growth, development and characteristics of th e phenomenon, and suggest methods for effectively dealing with terrorism (Fig. 2. 1). Explanatory Disciplines to Terrorism Different research disciplines may be able to provide answers to fundamental questions at the core of terrorism research, such as:Psychology The field of psychology can provide answers to such questions as: Do terrorists have common psychological characteristics? Do terrorists have a psychological profile? Why do people become terrorists? Which people might become terrorists and which will not? Why do people join a terrorist organization and why do they leave it? When, why, and how does the personal radicalization process take place? (See Post, 1998; Raine, 1993; Hubbard, 1971). 2 Trends in Modern International Terrorism 17 Economics How important are economic variables in explaining the development and motivation of terrorism?To what degree can terrorists’ financial situation explain the motives for their behavior? How much does the economic factor deter mine the scope and characteristics of terrorism activity? 4 (See Abadie, 2004; Kahn and Weiner, 2002; Krueger and Laitin, 2008; Krueger and Maleckova, 2002; Piazza, 2006). Sociology How much influence does one’s peer group have on the decision to join a terrorist group or the motivation to conduct acts of terrorism? How much can processes of socialization and delegitimization by society – ostracizing, discrimination, alienation, etc. serve as variables explaining the motives of terrorism? Why does a certain population at a specific time tend to carry out terrorist attacks while another population with similar characteristics does not choose this course of action? What is the extent of the connection between terrorism and different cultures? 5 (See Bandura, 1973, 1998; Gibbs, 1989; Merari, 2004; Morgan, 2001; Webb, 2002). Criminology To what extent should terrorism be treated as a phenomenon in the criminal sphere? What are the differences between the characteristics of criminal and terrorist activity?What are the similarities and the differences in the organizational characteristics between terrorist and criminal organizations? 6 (See Klein et al. , 2006; Klein and Maxson, 2006; Lafree, 2007). 4 Several studies have focused on refuting the widely claimed link between poverty and terrorism (Harmon, 2000; Hasisi and Pedahzur, 2000; Schmid, 1983). In fact, a 2003 study by Krueger and Maleckova showed that higher-earning Palestinians were more likely to justify the use of terrorism to achieve political goals; and a 2002 study (Krueger and Maleckova, 2002) did not find a link between Hezbollah fighters and impoverished conditions – ather, they were richer and more educated than their counterparts. Another study looked at the biographies of 285 suicide bombers and found them to be richer and more educated than members of the general population (Victoroff, 2005:21). 5 Until September 11, there were few academic studies of terrorism from a strictl y sociological viewpoint. However, Bandura (1973, 1998) used social learning theory to suggest that violence follows observation and imitation of an aggressive model. Friedland (1992) cited the â€Å"frustrationaggression hypothesis† in understanding why terrorists turn to violence (as cited in Victoroff, 2005).Morgan (2001) applied the cult model to understand individual actors and group dynamics within terrorist groups. 6 For the role of policing in counter-terrorism strategies, see Chaps. 3–5 of this volume. LaFree and Dugan (Chap. 2) also briefly discuss the comparison between rates of terrorist attacks and other types of criminal violence. The interplay and linkages between organized crime and terrorism are explored in several anthology volumes, such as Holmes (2007), among many others. 18 B. GanorPolitical Science and International Relations To what extent should terrorism be understood in rational terms (cost-benefit calculation) as an effective method intended to achieve political goals? To what extent can political terms such as sovereignty, power, authority, and social justice serve as variables to explain the phenomenon of terrorism? To what degree is the phenomenon of terrorism connected to certain ideologies or a certain form of government? To what degree does modern terrorism aim to take advantage of the liberal democratic form of government’s values and traits?To what extent is the media component essential in order to explain the strategy of modern terrorism? How are the decision-making processes different in terrorist organizations than other organizations? Can terrorism be understood as a means for states to achieve their interests in the international arena? To what extent can terrorism be dealt with by using deterrent measures in general and deterring state-sponsors of terrorism in particular? (See Crenshaw, 2000; Ganor, 2005; Hoffman, 1998; Nacos, 1994). Theology To what extent is modern terrorism a result of religious extremism?How is incitement to terrorism carried out with the use of religious rationalizations and how can this incitement be dealt with? (See Atran, 2006; Hoffman, 1995; Juergensmeyer, 2003; Ranstorp, 1996; Rapoport, 1984). Hence, nearly every academic research discipline has been, and will continue to be, critical in providing answers to some of the central issues that lie behind understanding the phenomenon of terrorism and the methods for dealing with it. Only this multidisciplinary approach can provide a profound understanding of the phenomenon. The Definition of TerrorismGrowing interest in the field of terrorism and increased funding allotted to academic research and teaching budgets post-9/11 has spurred and supported the publication of hundreds of books and articles in the past few years, many professional and academic conferences, and a general flourishing of the field. Yet, six years after the world recognized the magnitude of the terrorist threat on 9/11, researchers, security professionals, politicians, jurists, and others have still not been able to agree upon its most fundamental component – what is terrorism?Moreover, and somewhat surprisingly, the only consensus these individuals have reached is that it might be impossible, or even unnecessary, to reach an internationally 2 Trends in Modern International Terrorism 19 accepted definition of terrorism. 7 Those who hold this opinion – in fact the majority in the field – usually cite the cliche â€Å"one man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter,† in order to imply that, in their opinion, the issue of definition is subjective. As such, even partial agreement regarding its content cannot be reached. Louis Henkin (1989) captured this entiment in 1990 when he said that: â€Å"Terrorism†¦ is not a useful legal concept. † Those who do not regard a definition as critical believe that the international system – and the security establi shment in particular – can manage without consensus on the issue. They claim that terrorists, in a sense, commit regular crimes – extortion, murder, arson, and other felonies already covered by conventional criminal law. Therefore, they can be tried for committing these felonies without the need for a special criminal classification, and thus definition, for terrorism.Needless to say, there is no shortage of proposed definitions for terrorism. Every researcher, expert, security professional, NGO, country, and politician espouses their own definition, one that likely represents a distinct world view and political stance. By the early 1980s, Schmid and Jongman had already listed 109 definitions of terrorism proposed by researchers in the field (Schmid and Jongman, 1998:5). In their chapter in this volume, LaFree and Dugan touch upon the difficulty in reaching a consensus on a definition of terrorism given its controversial and highly politicized nature.It is within this context that they note the U. S. was reluctant to define the attacks by Contra rebels in Nicaragua as terrorism, while regarding practically all violence in Iraq and Afghanistan as such. They further note that more inclusive definitions of terrorism are often preferred by businesses or private think tanks that are collecting data for the purpose of risk assessment, as such an approach ultimately benefits their clients (LaFree and Dugan, in this volume). Among the hundreds of definitions of terrorism that have been accepted throughout the years, some contain conceptual and phrasing problems (Hoffman, 2004:3).Many researchers note that the only certainty regarding terrorism is the pejorative manner in which the word is generally used and associated (Hoffman, 2006:23; Horgan, 2005:1). As such, when scholars, politicians, or activists describe and analyze the activities of alleged terrorist organizations, they very often use alternative terms that bear more positive connotations, such a s guerilla or underground movements, revolutionaries, militias, militants, commando groups, national liberation movements, etc. (Hoffman, 2006:28).Many in the Western world have accepted the premise that terrorism and national liberation are located on two opposite ends of a spectrum legitimizing the use of violence. The struggle for â€Å"national liberation† is, allegedly, located on the positive 7 In a presentation on the definition of terrorism to the UK Parliament in March 2007, Lord Carlile quoted David Tucker from Skirmishes at the Edge of the Empire, stating that: â€Å"Above the gates of hell is the warning that all that enter should abandon hope. Less dire but to the same effect is the warning given to those who try to define terrorism† (See http://www. amilnation. org/terrorism/ uk/070317carlile. htm); for a reporter’s perspective see Kinsley, 2001; see also Levitt (1986), in which he claims a definition for terrorism is no easier to find than the Hol y Grail. 20 B. Ganor and justified end of the violence spectrum, while terrorism is its unjust and negative polar opposite. Within this framework, it would be impossible for a specific organization to be considered both a terrorist group and a national liberation movement, as Senator Henry Jackson claims: â€Å"The thought that one man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter is unacceptable.Freedom fighters or revolutionaries do not blow up buses with noncombatants; terrorists and murderers do. Freedom fighters do not kidnap and slaughter students, terrorists and murders do†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (As cited in Netanyahu, 1987:18) There is little basis for the claim that â€Å"freedom fighters† cannot carry out acts of terrorism and murder. This approach unintentionally plays into the hands of terrorists, who claim that since they are acting to expel who they consider to be a foreign occupier, they cannot also be considered terrorists.However, many freedom fighters i n modern history committed crimes and purposely targeted innocent civilians. The difference between â€Å"terrorism† and â€Å"freedom fighting† is not a subjective distinction based on the observer’s point of view. Rather, it derives from identifying the perpetrator’s goals and methods of operation. Terrorism is a means – a tool – for achieving an end, and that â€Å"end† can very well be liberating the homeland from the yoke of a foreign occupier. An organization can be, at the same time, both a national liberation movement and a terrorist group.It is not the specific goal – whether â€Å"freedom fighting† or another legitimate political objective – that distinguishes a group as a terrorist organization or justifies its activities. Many groups, however, such as the Muslim World League, do not clearly make this distinction. In a special publication from 2001, the Muslim World League states that: â€Å"Terrorism is an outrageous attack carried out either by individuals, groups or states against the human being (his religion, life, intellect, property and honor).It includes all forms of intimidation, harm, threatening, killing without a just cause†¦ so as to terrify and horrify people by hurting them or by exposing their lives, liberty, security or conditions to danger†¦ or exposing a national or natural resource to danger† (Al-Mukarramah, 2001). In presenting the activities that constitute terrorism as being committed â€Å"without a just cause,† the Muslim World League’s definition infers that such acts committed with a just cause are not considered terrorism.Such definitions are typical of attempts to create confusion between the means and the end, ultimately foiling any possibility of reaching a consensus on a definition. Since September 11, international terrorism has emerged on the top of national and international security agendas, widely perceived as a s evere and very real threat to world peace. It is a threat that necessitates international alignment and cooperation on an unprecedented level. Such a high degree of cooperation cannot be established or sustained however without agreement over the most basic common denominator – the definition of terrorism.Outside intelligence and military circles, the effectiveness of other apparatuses essential in countering the terrorist threat is dependent upon a clear, broad, and objective definition of terrorism that can be accepted internationally. Such a definition is essential in order to: disrupt the financing of terrorism, respond to states and 2 Trends in Modern International Terrorism 21 communities that support terrorism, prevent recruitment and incitement of terrorist operatives, and establish legal measures and guidelines to both outlawed terrorist organizations and activities, and arrest and extradite alleged terrorists.Above all else, the international community must establis h a binding normative system to determine what is allowed and not allowed – what is legitimate and not legitimate – when violence is used for political objectives. A definition that would address all these requirements is: Terrorism is the deliberate use of violence aimed against civilians in order to achieve political goals (nationalistic, socioeconomic, ideological, religious, etc. ) In defining terrorism within the above framework, it is important to note that a terrorist act would not be classified as a â€Å"regular† criminal activity warranting the application of criminal legal norms.Rather, terrorism would be viewed as an act of war, and the countermeasures mounted against it would too be conducted in accordance to the norms and laws of war. The Israeli High Court of Justice has itself struggled with the distinction between criminal acts and acts of war, reflecting the tension facing those studying and responding to terrorism today. According to Justice C heshin, â€Å"a judge’s job is difficult. It is sevenfold as difficult when he comes to deal with a hideously murderous attack such as we have in front of us.The murderer’s action is inherently – though not within the framework of or as part of the formal definition – an act of war, and an act that is inherently an act of war is answered with an act of war, in the ways of war† (Abd Al-Rahim Hassan Nazzal and others vs. the Commander of the IDF forces in Judea and Samaria, 1994). In a different verdict, the judge ruled that a â€Å"criminal code created for daily life in human society does not have an answer for the question† (Federman and others vs. the Attorney General, 1993).The debate over whether terrorism should be considered a criminal act or an act of war remains strong among academics, NGOs, and counter terrorism professionals. Without consensus on the issue, states have applied their own policies in trying and convicting alleged ter rorist suspects – whether as criminals or combatants. Despite the fact that criminal acts can consist of the same actions as terrorism – murder, arson, and extortion – terrorism, unlike an average criminal act, threatens the internal social order, personal and national security, world peace, and the economy. As previously noted, acts of terrorism are intended to achieve various political goals and could thus be considered arguably more severe than criminal violations. In addition, as international law expert and terrorism prosecutor Ruth Wedgwood has argued, criminal law may be â€Å"too weak a weapon† to counter terrorism, as destroying terrorist infrastructure and networks requires diplomacy, use of force, and criminal 8 Resolution 1566 (2004) adopted by the Security Council in its 5053rd meeting, on Oct. 8 2004: â€Å"†¦Reaffirming that terrorism in all its forms and manifestations constitutes one of the most serious threats to peace and security .Considering that acts of terrorism seriously impair the enjoyment of human rights and threaten the social and economic development of all states, they undermine global stability and prosperity. † (See: http://daccessdds. un. org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N04/542/82/ PDF/N0454282. pdf? OpenElement. ) 22 B. Ganor law combined. She adds that the restrictions embedded in a criminal justice system make sense in civil society where deterrence is a factor, but this may not apply in a fight against a highly networked terrorist organization (Wedgwood and Roth, 2004). Bruce Hoffman points to a fundamental difference between a criminal and a terrorist when he asserts that while a criminal seeks personal material goals, a terrorist usually sees himself as an altruist acting for and in the name of many others (Hoffman, 2006:37). Therefore, a terrorist may be perceived as posing greater danger through his actions, since he is significantly more willing than a criminal to sacrifice in order to achieve his goals – even to the point of self-sacrifice in certain situations. The criminal code in itself does not serve as an adequate platform to define terrorism.The laws of war are better suited as a framework for defining and dealing with terrorism, since the phenomenon is a violent action intended to achieve political goals, often involving the use of pseudo-military methods of operation. By basing the definition of terrorism on an established system of norms and laws, already included in international conventions and accepted by most of the countries in the world, the international community is more likely to reach a broad international agreement on the definition of terrorism – a basic tool in the joint international struggle against terrorism.At the core of the Geneva and The Hague conventions are rules differentiating between two types of personnel involved in military activity: â€Å"combatants,† military personnel who deliberately target enemy military pers onnel; and â€Å"war criminals,† military personnel who, among other actions forbidden by the laws of war, deliberately target civilians. Currently, the moral differentiation between a legitimate combatant and a war criminal is based on the attacked target (military or civilian), and, at least in principle, only applies to state entities and their armies and not to substate entities.In the Israeli setting for example, a Palestinian, considered part of a subnational group, who is involved in a deliberate attack against an Israeli military target, will receive the same treatment and punishment as a Palestinian who deliberately attacks a civilian target. Since there is no distinction made between the two, despite the difference in their targets, the degree of international legitimacy or condemnation of both cases will likely continue to be dependant on the supporter or condemner’s political stance and not necessarily on the character or target of the deliberate operation – its legality under applicable rules and norms.The American government, for example, classifies attacks against its troops in Iraq as terrorist attacks, as it does the October 2000 attack against the USS Cole or the attack against the American military barracks in Dhahran (June 1996). In fact, in an attempt to expand the definition of terrorism to include attacks against soldiers, the U. S. State Department’s definition states that terrorism is the Ruth Wedgewood and Human Rights Watch Director Kenneth Roth debate the US’s treatment of terrorist suspects – as combatants versus criminals – in a series of articles in Foreign Affairs (See Roth, 2004; Wedgwood and Roth, 2004). 2 Trends in Modern International Terrorism 23 deliberate use of violence against â€Å"non-combatant targets,† which includes both civilians and military personnel not on the battle field. 10 While it is natural for victims of terrorism to adopt this broad-based definitio n, terrorist organizations and their supporters can legitimately argue that in seeking to achieve their political goals, they cannot reasonably be required to either not confront military personnel entirely, or do so only when they are fully armed and prepared for war.They claim that they must be given the right to attack and surprise soldiers whatever the circumstances. In applying these considerations, the U. S. State Department’s definition of terrorism could not successfully serve as a common denominator leading to international agreement. It is only in reducing the scope of the definition to the deliberate targeting of civilians – as opposed to â€Å"non-combatants† – that may solve this problem, enabling the establishment of a clear moral boundary that should not be crossed. A terrorist act would be considered, in a sense, the equivalent for a substate entity to a war crime committed by a state. 1 During a state of war, normative principles and the laws of war forbid the deliberate targeting of civilians but allow deliberate attacks on an enemy’s military personnel (in accordance with other applicable regulations). Similarly, in modern asymmetric warfare, a normative rule must be set to address limitations on substate actors, differentiating between guerilla warfare (violence against military personnel) and terrorism (violence against civilians) – just as the rules of war differentiate between legitimate combatants and war criminals.For the purpose of defining terrorism, it is not significant what goal the organization aspires to achieve (as long as it is political); both the terrorist and the guerilla fighter may aspire to achieve the same goals. However, they each chose a different path – a different means – in order to realize these goals. Defining terrorism is critical in ensuring that the same normative standards currently enforced on states are applicable to nonstate actors, defining when thei r use of violence is permissible and when it is prohibited.Paradoxically, what is currently prohibited for states is not yet prohibited for organizations. Defining terrorism does not raise or lower the obligation of states to behave normatively and certainly does not place additional legal burdens upon them. It simply makes organizations accountable for their actions under the same value system currently obligating states. Terrorism is defined by the U. S. State Department as: â€Å"premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents. (from the 22 U. S. C. , 2656f(d)(2); See http://www. state. gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2005/65353. htm. ) 11 The UN short legal definition of terrorism, proposed by terrorism expert Alex P. Schmid, states that an act of terrorism is the â€Å"peacetime equivalent of a war crime. † While such a definition does not consider terrorism an act of war, in drawing a parallel with a w ar crime it notes the importance of the target (civilian vs. military) in legitimizing acts of violence. (See: http://www. unodc. org/ unodc/terrorism_definitions. html. ) 10 24 B. GanorReaching a broad international agreement regarding the definition of terrorism may require the international community to apply laws of war that forbid the deliberate targeting of civilians, but allow for the deliberate attack (in accordance with the other regulations) of an enemy’s military personnel. The definition proposed in this chapter may be capable of eliciting a broad base of support from many countries and organizations, both because it is based on already accepted international norms, and because it seemingly provides subnational organizations the possibility of legitimately using violence in order to achieve their goals.Such a definition would not allow for the artificial distinction that is often made between â€Å"bad† terrorism and â€Å"good† or â€Å"tolerableâ €  terrorism. It instead adheres to the principle that â€Å"terrorism is terrorism is terrorism,† no matter who carries it out – a Muslim, Christian, Jew, or member of any other religion. Terrorism would be considered an illegitimate and forbidden method of operation in all cases, under all circumstances. The ideological or cultural background of the perpetrators; and the religious, political, social or economic motives of the act; would all be irrelevant in classifying an act of terrorism.Many view the effort to achieve a broad international agreement on terrorism as hopeless and naive. However, Security Council Resolution 1566, which was unanimously accepted by Council members in October 2004, may be a basis for hope that countries will overcome prior disputes, rise above their own interests, and reach an agreement in the near future regarding the international definition of terrorism. Resolution 1566, without serving as the definition itself, already establishes one basic principle on which an international definition can be built.It stipulates that terrorism is a crime against civilians, which in no circumstance can be justified by political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious, or other considerations. 12 Modern Terrorism Descriptions of typical terrorist operations and their common characteristics are often included in proposed definitions of modern terrorism – particularly in those that address the fear and anxiety created by terrorist acts. In such definitions, terrorism is presented as a form of violent activity (or threat of violence) that 2 Resolution 1566 (2004): â€Å"Condemns in the strongest terms all acts of terrorism irrespective of their motivation, whenever and by whomsoever committed, as one of the most serious threats to peace and security†¦Recalls that criminal acts, including against civilians committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury or taking hostages with the pur pose to provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of persons or particular persons intimidate a population or compel a government or an offences within the scope of and as defined in the international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism, are under no circumstances justifiable by considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic religious or other similar nature and calls upon all states to prevent such acts†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . (See: http://daccessdds. un. org/doc/UNDOC/ GEN/N04/542/82/PDF/N0454282. pdf? OpenElement) 2 Trends in Modern International Terrorism 25 intends to frighten a group of people beyond the actual victims (Horgan, 2005:1).After reviewing the development of the definition of terrorism and examining a variety of definitions, Bruce Hoffman reaches the following conclusion in his important book, Inside Terrorism: â€Å"We may therefore now attempt to define terrorism as the deliberate creation and exploitation of fea r through violence or the threat of violence in the pursuit of political change†¦ terrorism is specifically designed to have far-reaching psychological effects beyond the immediate victim(s) or object of the terrorist attack†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Hoffman, 2006:40). Definitions that refer to terrorism as an act intended to instill fear and anxiety in the public are generally based on the literal meaning and historical use of the term â€Å"terrorism,† its application dating back to the French civil war. 13 Such definitions also rely on what is perceived to be the primary operational tactic of modern terrorism – psychological warfare – which seeks to achieve political goals by instilling fear and anxiety among its target population.While definitions vary widely, there is a general consensus among most leading scholars as to the essential nature of the terrorist threat; researchers will rarely dispute the importance fear and anxiety play in understanding the phenomen on of modern terrorism. However, it is important to note that resulting fear and anxiety may not be an essential variable in defining a terrorist attack. In order to ensure that acts are objectively classified as terrorist attacks, an accepted definition must, in application, serve as a checklist of components. Based on the definition proposed in the previous section, if an act is not violent, does not deliberately target civilians, or does not attempt to achieve a political goal, then it is not a terrorist attack.Adding the element of fear and anxiety to the definition – essentially putting it on the checklist of required components – significantly changes the term’s application. If an attack, which would otherwise be considered an act of terrorism, does not aim to frighten, but rather only seeks to achieve concrete, tangible objectives – such as the release of prisoners or the assassination of a leading political figure – would the action not be considered terrorism? Similarly, a nuclear attack aimed at eradicating the majority of the population or contaminating an extensive area – which ultimately seeks to disable the state and prevent it from operating as an independent political entity – would be widely considered a terrorist attack, even though instilling fear and anxiety is not its primary purpose.Since such circumstances and scenarios can reasonably exist, the â€Å"fear and anxiety element† may not be necessary in defining terrorism; rather, it is valuable in explaining the modus operandi of a significant portion of modern terrorist attacks. 13 The term â€Å"terrorism† comes from the Latin terrere, â€Å"to cause to tremble. † The term became popularized during the â€Å"Reign of Terror† carried out by the revolutionary government in France from 1793 to 1794 (Juergensmeyer, 2003: 5). 26 B. Ganor Indeed, modern terrorism is not necessarily about the numbers. In fact, most mod ern terrorist attacks, while violent in nature, generally produce limited damage or casualties. 4 Instead, they rely on psychological warfare as a tool in achieving their goals, creating fear and anxiety among the general population. In many cases, a terrorist attack is random, aimed not at someone specific, but rather a group that shares a common trait and symbolizes the organization’s broader target (Americans, Israelis, â€Å"infidels,† Westerners, etc. ). By simultaneously transmitting several messages, these attacks intensify the sense of anxiety felt by the target group, which leads civilians to pressure decision makers and their government into changing policies and agreeing to terrorists’ demands. Some of the messages terrorist organizations aim to send through their attacks include: 1.Uncertainty – The randomness of the attack is supposed to instill a sense of uncertainty in the public regarding â€Å"safe behavior,† prompting fear that an yone could be the next victim (Horgan, 2005:3). 2. Vulnerability – A terrorist attack can take place anywhere, anytime, making all citizens feel vulnerable. 3. Helplessness – The state’s security apparatus cannot foil or prevent attacks, or protect civilians. 4. Personalization – You or someone close to you may not have been hurt in a recent attack, but it could very well be you the next time, since the victims have the same pro? le as you (Ganor, 2005:256). 5. Disproportional price – The price the individual must pay due to his government’s policy is very high. For that reason he must act to change national/international priorities in a way that will serve the terrorist’s objectives. 6.Vengeance – The citizen suffers due to the government’s actions against the terrorist organization and its supporters, and for this reason it is in his best interest to pressure the government to avoid this activity. Such attacks aim to c reate anxiety among the target group at a level disproportionate to the actual capabilities of the terrorist organization, forcing members of the target population to reprioritize and shift their concerns from that of national security to personal security. The target population perceives a growing threat from terrorism, which may be viewed by the public as largely fueled by the government’s supposedly dangerous policies.As political tension and criticism against the government in the target country mount, according to the strategy of modern terrorism, the public will pressure decision makers to change their policies in a manner that will suit the interests and goals of the terrorist organizations, or call for a change in administration that will establish policies more favorable to terrorist groups. In order to create this effect of fear, terrorist organizations often choose to escalate their activity in such a manner as to shock the public. According to Crenshaw, a review L aFree and Dugan note that over 53% of terrorist organizations from the Global Terrorism Database included in their study (1974–2004) have never produced a single fatality (LaFree and Dugan, in this volume). 14 2Trends in Modern International Terrorism 27 of the history of terrorism reveals that terrorists have purposely chosen targets considered taboo or unpredictable in order to attract international media coverage (Crenshaw, 1998:14–15). The media component is central to modern terrorism’s strategy. Without media coverage, a terrorist organization has little opportunity to convey its message, let alone shock or scare its target population. The success of a modern terrorist campaign is arguably dependent on the amount of publicity it receives; the â€Å"journalist and television camera are the terrorist’s best friends† (Laqueur, 1987). Terrorism and Traditional CrimeIn seeking funding to support ongoing operations or infrastructure, terrorist orga nizations in Latin America, Europe, the Middle East, and the Far East have increasingly come to rely on â€Å"traditional† criminal activities, such as drug trafficking, counterfeiting, petty crime, human trafficking, and extortion (Vidino and Emerson, 2006; Mili, 2006). In fact, over the last three decades, law enforcement agencies have reported increased cooperation between terrorist organizations and criminal actors and activities – including attacks that have been financed through illegal crimes and suspects who have been prosecuted for crimes in which proceeds were directed to international terrorist organizations like Hezbollah and Al-Qaeda (Noble, 2003).Growing expenses associated with terrorist activity, such as payments to organization personnel, transportation, accommodation, training, and procurement of weapons, have served as incentive for terrorist organizations to get involved in common crime. These activities only further exacerbate the danger posed by t errorist organizations to the global economy and to the safety and wellbeing of the world’s population. By counterfeiting currency, for example, a terrorist organization can damage a country’s economy while it raises funds. Similarly, by producing and smuggling drugs to certain countries, an organization can cause considerable harm to the local population and simultaneously finance its activities.In the early 1970s, terrorist organizations, particularly those not supported financially by states, funded their activities through criminal activities such as bank robberies, kidnappings for ransom, and blackmail. Terrorist organizations, such as the Red Brigades in Italy, cooperated with criminal elements, enlisting them into the ranks of their organization. However, in the late 1970s and more so in the early 1980s, terrorist organizations realized that drug trafficking was far more lucrative than other routine criminal activities, leading to a phenomenon known as â€Å"na rco-terrorism. †15 Terrorist organizations have been involved in producing and selling narcotics throughout the world – in Latin America (Colombia, Peru, Cuba, Bolivia); in Asia and 5 To illustrate the amount of money involved, a survey conducted by the United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention described the production, trafficking, and sales of illicit drugs to be an estimated $400-billion-a-year industry. A 2005 UN report estimated that global drug trade generated an estimated $322 billion in 2003, greater than the gross domestic product of 88% of the countries in the world (Pollard, 2005). 28 B. Ganor the Middle East (Sri Lanka, Lebanon, Afghanistan, India, the Philippines, Pakistan); and even in Western countries such as Italy, Spain, Ireland, and the United States. Drug trafficking by terrorist groups in Columbia is of particular concern to western governments. According to reports from the U. S.Bureau of Narcotics and Law Enforcement affairs, rev enues earned from narcotics cultivation, taxation, and distribution have accounted for at least half the funding used to support terrorist activities by two of the country’s largest terrorist groups – the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and the United Self-Defense Groups of Colombia (AUC). The State Department estimates that the FARC receives $300 million a year from drug sales to finance its terrorist activities. 16 The tri-border area (TBA), or â€Å"triple frontier† as it is known, centered along the borders of Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil, has been widely recognized as another hotbed for terrorism financing and activity, particularly to groups such as Hezbollah and Hamas. Without strict border controls, the area serves as a haven for drugs and arms trafficking, counterfeiting, smuggling and other illegal activities.Tens of millions of dollars are estimated to have been transferred to groups through illegal remittances and other illegal activ ities, according to investigations by local police forces (Madani, 2002; Tri-border Transfers â€Å"funding terror,† 2006). Most terror organizations, however, are not directly involved in actually growing or producing drugs. They are tasked primarily with protecting the drugs and ensuring the safety of growers and producers. They also are active in smuggling narcotics to the marketing centers in countries where the drugs are distributed (Hudson, 2003:24). These organizations usually have a diverse network of contacts, enabling them to cross borders via indirect routes and smuggle weapons, ammunition, and various other products.Terrorist organizations can use the same routes and network used by their supporters in order to smuggle drugs. In some cases, drugs have been used to recruit foreign activists, in a sense bribing them to execute terrorist attacks. In these cases, the activists, who are not members of the organization, are enlisted in order to carry out attacks on beha lf of the terror organizations, sometimes unbeknownst to the activists themselves, in return for a regular supply of drugs. 17 In other cases, terrorist organizations supply their members with drugs in order to increase their dependence on the organization and encourage obedience to its leaders. 8 Some terrorist organizations refer to the distribution of drugs as an alternative form of attack, since drug consumption can harm the national morale and weaken the ability of the population to cope with crises. 16 See Deborah McCarthy’s testimony before the Committee on the Judiciary United States Senate, May 20, 2003, â€Å"Narco-Terrorism: International Drug Trafficking and Terrorism – A Dangerous Mix. † 17 For example, On August 28, 1971, a Dutch citizen, Henrietta Hundemeir, was arrested in Israel with a suitcase containing a timer-activated bomb with a barometric altimeter. The bomb was meant to explode in the El Al aircraft in which she herself was flying to Isr ael.Hundemeir was enlisted in Yugoslavia by a member of the â€Å"Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine,† who became her close friend by supplying her with drugs and using them with her. 18 One example is the â€Å"Weatherman† organization, which was responsible for terrorist attacks in the U. S. at the end of the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. The group perceived drug use as a part of the revolutionary process. 2 Trends in Modern International Terrorism 29 Global Jihadi Terrorism Terrorism is a dynamic phenomenon that develops over time, gradually changing its shape and activities. It is carried out by various organizations in the service of different ideologies.Despite the fact that various local terrorist groups have operated in the international arena in the past decade, there is growing recognition by scholars and the intelligence community that the current international terrorist threat does not come from organizations motivated by nationalist grie vances or separatist goals (such as the IRA, ETA, Fatah, LTTE, PKK, and others). Instead, the main threat is that of radical Islamic terrorism primarily aimed at promoting a radical religious world view. 19 Such groups are motivated by what they perceive as a divine command, making them potentially more dangerous than groups motivated by other causes. Hoffman stresses that while religion was an inseparable component of many terrorist organizations in the past, the dominant motivation for their actions was political rather than religious.This is not the case with Al-Qaeda and other radical Islamic organizations today. For them, religion is the most important component defining their activities, ideology, characteristics, and recruitment methods (Hoffman, 2006:82). According to James Thomson, â€Å"religions are very effective at guiding in-group morality and out-group hatred. They permit the take-over of groups by disenfranchised young males, they minimize the fear of death by sprea ding the belief in an afterlife reward for those who are dying in a holy war, etc. † (Thomson, 2003:82). Radical Islamic terrorism, part of the Global Jihad movement, includes acts perpetrated by many organizations, groups, and cells around the world.The movement is headed by Al-Qaeda, which, despite the many setbacks it has endured since September 11, 2001, is still capable of carrying out â€Å"direct attacks† through activists reporting directly to its authority or â€Å"indirect attacks† through proxy organizations – radical Islamic terrorist organizations and networks that share a similar fundamentalist Islamic ideology, aspirations, and interests. Some of these organizations, such as Egyptian, Bangladeshi, and Afghan Jihadi groups, were established by Osama bin Laden under the umbrella of his â€Å"International Islamic Front for Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders† (February 1998). Some of these organizations have made pacts or commitments to bi n Laden over the years, such as the Egyptian Al-Jama’a Al-Islamiya and the GSPC (currently referred to as Al-Qaeda of the Maghreb). However, the most significant trend of the past several years has been the phenomenon of â€Å"homegrown terrorism. Lone activists and local radical groups of Muslims, who either immigrated to Western countries There are also terrorist organizations that combine religious grievances with national-political motivations, such as Hamas. On the one hand, Hamas derives its ideology from the same narrative and background as Al-Qaeda, based on the early religious global ideology of the Muslim Brotherhood. At the same time though, Hamas seeks to achieve the nationalistic goal of destroying Israel and creating a Palestinian state in its place. 19 30 B. Ganor (first, second, or third generation) or converted to Islam in their country of origin, become inspired by the Global Jihad movement, leading them to carry out terrorist attacks.Al-Qaeda, its allies i n the Global Jihad movement, other radical Islamic terrorist organizations, and the radical Islamic networks and cells of the West, all believe in one divine mission, which calls upon them to spread their radical beliefs throughout the world (Sageman, 2004:1). In seeking to achieve this mission, they believe it is permissible and necessary to make use of violence and terrorism, and that they are fighting a â€Å"defensive war† that allows them to use drastic measures. One perspective shared by several researchers is that this defensive war is not actually pitted against American or Western imperialism, as Global Jihad organizations commonly claim. Rather, the â€Å"fight against the West† is used to help mobilize and recruit activists, arguably acting as â€Å"lip service† by Al-Qaeda.It also serves to at least express their concern over every aspect of modernization, including democratic forms of government, liberal values, and even modern technology that threa ten the way of life they strive for – a radical Islamic caliphate governed by Sharia law. It is also important to note that the threat of Global Jihad is not, as many tend to think, a war between Islam and other religions. Rather, it can be understood as a war of cultures – the culture of radical Islam against the outside world; or the culture of radical Islam against the culture of the â€Å"infidels,† as Islamists call all those who do not share their world view. Many in the radical Jihadi movement recognize that they will not be able to succeed in their worldwide campaign in the near future. Therefore they aim, as a first stage, to create localized radical Islamic revolutions, primarily in Arab and Islamic countries.In fact, the majority of Global Jihad attacks over the past several years occurred in countries of the Arab or Islamic world,